Aim

Woodlands may be susceptible to a number of damaging agents. Identifying the cause of damage an early stage is important, before the impacts become an expensive/ecological problem. The aim of this guide is to provide information to help with the identification process.

key: effects of damage type to woodland		no effect
		no significant losses
		can cause significant economic loss but woodland can survive
		can cause complete loss of woodland

Recognising causes of damage

The following steps may help in assessing damage:
A. Read the signs. In most cases the causes will be apparent on close examination. Some knowledge of site history will be useful.
B. If in doubt, use the questions below to help identify potential causes.
C. Check the individual descriptions to confirm damage type and assess the potential extent of the effects of the damage depending on the age class of tree (i.e. seedling, sapling, mature).

Environment

Environment Signs:Trees may be damaged or stressed by a range of environmental factors including water-logging, nutient deficiency, frost damage, lightning strikes and drought.

Insect

Insects Signs: Main species affecting trees are large pine weevil on restocking sites, common weevil on ex farmland planting sites, aphids and moth larvae. Can all cause damage usually by defoliation.

Vole

Voles Signs – Vole runs can be seen when grass is cut or after snow has melted.
Damage description: Removes bark of young trees and shrubs below level of surrounding vegetation. May cause damage higher up stem when snow provides cover.

Squirrel

Squirrels Damage description: Can strip bark at a range of heights. Damage at base of tree can be similar to rabbits. Bark removed higher up stem will tend to be 1-2 cm wide and several cm long.

Hare

Hares Signs: Rounded and fibrous droppings larger than rabbit droppings. Damage description: Browses young trees – stems cut cleanly at a sharp angle. Cut stem usually left uneaten.

Rabbit

Rabbits Signs: Rounded and fibrous droppings, often deposited in latrine areas in high numbers. Burrows and freshly dug earth often visible.
Damage description: Browses young trees – stems cut cleanly at a sharp angle. Bark stripping on young trees and on thin barked mature trees. Damage usually no more than 0.5m high but can be higher if snow cover allows higher access.

No		Question	Go to
1		•Seedling (young tree, below 1m high).	2
		•Sapling (young tree, 1– 3m high).	13
		•Mature (all older trees).	21

Seedlings

No	Question	Y/N	Go to
2	Is seedling foliage brown, yellow or shrivelled ?	Y: N:	environmental 3
3	Has bark been removed?	Y: N:	4 8
4	Are teeth marks visible on close inspection?	Y: N:	5 6
5	Size of teeth marks 1-2 mm		voles
5	Size of teeth marks 3-4 mm		rabbits
6	Has bark been rubbed off ?	Y: N:	deer 7
7	Has bark been removed without any marks on underlying wood?	Y: N:	insects (large pine weevil) other signs?
8	Have leaves and small shoots been eaten?	Y: N:	9 12
9	Are severed ends at a sharp angle and clean cut?	Y: N:	10 11
10	Have severed shoots been left uneaten?	Y: N:	hares rabbits
11	Do severed shoots have a ragged end?	Y: N:	large herbivore other signs?
12	Have only needles or leaves been eaten?	Y: N:	normally insects birds

 

Saplings

No	Question	Y/N	Go to
13	Has bark been removed?	Y: N:	14 19
14	Are teeth marks visible on close inspection?	Y: N:	15 18
15	Size of teeth marks : 1-2 mm	voles
	1.5mm	squirrels
	3-4 mm	rabbits
	more than 4 mm	Y:	16
16	Which direction do teeth marks run? Vertically	Y:	deer
	Diagonally	Y:	17
17	What height does damage extend to? 1.5mm	sheep/goats
	2mm		cattle/horses
	2.5mm		horses
18	Has bark been rubbed off ? between 0 and 0.5m? above 1m?		roe deer (likely) deer
19	Have lower branches been browsed?	Y:	20
20	Height to which branches are browsed 0.6m 1.1m 1.5m 1.8m 2m 2.5m		rabbits roe goats/sheep red/sika/fallow cattle/horses horses

Mature

No	Question	Y/N	Go to
21	Has bark been removed?	Y: N:	22 27
22	Are teeth marks visible on close inspection?	Y: N:	23 26
23	Size of teeth marks : 1.5 mm		squirrels
	3-4 mm		rabbits
	Size of teeth marks more than 4mm	Y:	24
24	Which direction do teeth marks run? Vertically Diagonally	Y: Y:	deer(refer below) 25
25	What height does damage extend to? 1.5mm 2mm 2.5mm		sheep/goats cattle/horses horses
26	Has bark been rubbed off ? between 0 and 0.5m?		roe deer (likely)
	above 1m?		deer species
27	Have lower branches been browsed?	Y:	28
28	Height to which branches are browsed 0.6m 1.1m 1.5m 1.8m 2m 2.5m		rabbits roe goats/sheep red/sika/fallow cattle/horses horses
29	Is ground heavily poached?	Y:	cattle (likely)

Birds 

Birds Signs:Droppings, local bird-expert knowledge. Damage description: May shear off top of shoots and pick out buds. Leader damage by nesting birds e.g. pigeons in conifer plantations.

Sheep Signs: Wool attached to coarse vegetation. Tracks are easily distinguished from deer tracks. Damage description: Browses seedlings and saplings. Cut end is usually flat across stem and a ragged end left. Bark can be stripped of stems.

Cattle, Horse, Goat Signs: footprints, presence of dung. The smell of goats usually confirms their presence. Damage description: Bark stripping and browsing can be severe to all stages of growth. Damage can appear at higher levels as goats can and do climb. When cattle are present, soft ground may be poached causing waterlogging of roots as well as root damage.

Roe Signs: Tracks distinguishable from other deer. Droppings are cylindrical with rounded ends. Damage description: Bark frayed from stems and branches by buck will leave a smooth white wound with shreds of bark hanging from it and is often accompanied by a v shaped scrape on the ground at the base of the tree. Browsing damage similar to sheep.

Fallow, Sika & Red Signs: Tracks of Red similar to Sika and Fallow deer. Red use wallows around the autumn rut. Damage description: Can strip bark up to 3m above the ground from saplings up to mature trees. Browsing damage similar to sheep. Fraying from cleaning antlers can cause significant damage to saplings.
Mature trees can also be damaged by rubbing antlers.Can cause poaching in soft ground when numbers are high. ‘Bole scoring’ damage (associated with Sika) is deep scoring or gouging of bark by antlers resulting in resin bleeding.

fallow

sika, red